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HBSE Class 10 History Chapter 2 Major Civilizations of the Ancient World Notes for Haryana Board of Bharat and the World Book Solution.
Major Civilizations of the Ancient World Class 10 History Chapter 2 Notes
The origin and development of man and his civilization is an interesting story. A large part of these civilizations is hidden in the thick fog of the past. Efforts are on to understand them. These civilizations developed at different times in different regions of the world. When a person starts living permanently, a social, political, cultural and economic system starts developing around him to lead an orderly life. This system develops civilization. The details of the civilizations, information about which has been received till date, are as follows:
Egyptian Civilization
The development of Egyptian civilization took place about seven thousand years ago. In ancient times, Egypt was divided into small states. In about 4000 BC, these states were united and organised into two kingdoms. First was the kingdom of North Egypt at the mouth of the Nile and second was the kingdom of South Egypt at the valley of the Nile. The capital of North Egypt was ‘Buto’ and the emblem was ‘Honeybee’. The capital of South Egypt was ‘Taikhebe’ and the emblem was ‘Bunch of Papyrus’. In 3400 BC, a king named Mena or Minis subjugated the whole of Egypt by uniting these two kingdoms. Mena was a successful conqueror and a great general. He made Memphis the capital of Egypt and estab lished a monarchical system there. He founded the first dynasty of Egypt.
Napoleon Bonaparte, the ruler of France, played an important role in taking the knowledge of Egypt to the world.
Sources of knowing the history of Egypt:
Literary Sources : Herodotus, Diodotus, Manetho
Archaeological Sources: Pyramids, Mausoleums, Murals, Temples, Rosetta Inscription
Modern Sources : book by Adoldouf Irman and J.S. Breasted.
Politics
The king of Egypt was called ‘Pharaoh’. The Pharaoh was considered a representative of justice and God. The political history of Egypt can be divided into three parts:
- Ancient Period or Pyramid Age (3400 BC to 2160 BC)
- Medieval or Feudal Age (2160 BC to 1580 BC)
- New Era or Imperial Age (1580 BC to 650 BC)
1. Pyramid Age (3400 BC to 2160 BC): Six dynasties ruled in this era. Among them the prominent rulers were Narmer, Atta, Djoser, Imhotep, Khufu, Userkaf, Khafre etc. These Pharaoh built high-rise pyramids (triangular tombs) of huge stones. Seventy pyramids still exist today near the city of Memphis, south of the modern capital of Egypt, Cairo. The credit of building the pyramids in Egypt goes to ‘Imhotep’ who was the Wazir of the Pharaoh Djoser of the third dynasty. These pyramids were built by the Egyptians to express the immortality and glory of their kingdom and its symbol Pharaoh. Sun god was the favourite deity of the rulers of Egypt. Therefore, to please the Sun God, they built huge pyramids. The purpose of building the pyramids was religious. Their objective must also have been to provide employment to the people. Their aim must have also been to prolong the culture.
2. Feudal Age (2160 BC to 1580 BC): Five dynasties ruled in the feudal era. Among them the main rulers were Intef, Mentuhotep, Amenhotep, Senwosret etc. In this era Egypt was divided into many small kingdoms and the state power came in the hands of the feudal lords. Due to the struggle among the feudal lords, all-round development of each state took place. At this time, tombs were built and trade and agriculture also flourished, as a result of which their cities became centres of civilization. These feudal lords used to fight with one another. There was unrest and chaos all around. In such a situation, the Hyksos people of Syria took control of Egypt. They started exploiting the local people, which made the general public hate the Hyksos people, and finally Amosis, the feudal lord of Thebes, who drove the Hyksos people out of Egypt and started ruling himself. The rulers of the coming dynasties were puppets.
The ancient Egyptians knew that sunlight and heat were essential for life. That’s why they considered the sun god ‘Re’, ‘Ra’ to be the cause of creation.
3. Imperial Age (1580 BC to 650 BC): This era began with the establishment of a well organized system of governance by the ruler of the eighteenth dynasty, Amenhotep by ending the power of the feudatories. People were happy and prosperous during this period. Many dynasties ruled in this era, prominent among them were Amenhotep II, Ahmose I, Thutmose 1, Amenhotep III, Hatshepsut (female ruler) etc., who raised Egypt to economic, social, political and cultural heights. For 3100 years, about 31 dynasties ruled Egypt. Finally, the Greek ruler Alexander took control of Egypt in 332 BC and after the death of Alexander, the rule of the Ptolemaic dynasty was established in Egypt.
Administration
1. Pharaoh (King): Pharaoh had unlimited rights. He was an autocratic ruler. All the powers of governance were vested in his hands. The Pharaoh was considered a deity.
2. Wazir: After the Pharaoh, the most important post in the administration was that of the Wazir, He used to help the Pharaoh in governance. His main function was to collect taxes and to keep records of income and expenditure.
3. Military organization: Initially, the Pharaoh of Egypt did not have a permanent army. The military organisation of the Pharaoh was based on the feudal system. Later, during the Twelfth Dynasty, the Pharaoh built a permanent army.
4. Council: In the court of the Pharaoh, there was a separate council of elderly courtiers. which was called ‘Saru’. Saru used to advise the Pharaoh.
5. Provincial rule : Pharaoh had divided the empire into many provinces for the convenience of governance. Each province was called Nom and its ruler was called ‘Nomarch’. Nomarch was appointed by the Pharaoh.
6. Local government: The administration of the villages was in the hands of the feudal lords, who had the powers of police and justice. In cities, there was an administrative officer who used to maintain peace, collect revenue etc.
7. Judicial system: The Pharaoh was the chief justice. The case was conducted in writing. The Pharaoh used to decide the case in three days. The criminal was given harsh punishment, such as beating with a stick, mutilation, expulsion from the country.
Economy and Commerce
1. Agriculture: Egypt used to be an agricultural country. Wheat, barley, cotton, flax were the main produce here and among fruits grapes, figs and dates etc. were produced. The Pharaoh paid special attention to agriculture. They used to make proper arrangements for irrigation.
2. Animal husbandry: The Egyptians kept animals. They reared cows, sheep, donkeys, calves, monkeys and poultry.
3. Industries: The Egyptians were proficient in many types of industries. They were skilled in cutting stones, making ornaments and utensils, making copper and bronze weapons and making wooden furniture. The Egyptians were also skilled in building boats and ships. Pottery making and cloth weaving became important industries there. They made paper from grass plants called papyrus and various types of medical materials were also made.
4. Commerce and Trade: Commerce and trade also flourished in Egypt. Internal trade in Egypt was done through the Nile river. Spices, dyes, oils, powders and sandalwood were imported from Egypt, India and Arabia. Animals were also traded.
Culture and Religion
The Egyptians were polytheistic and worshipped various forms of nature. In total, there were three thousand gods in Egypt. The most popular god of Egypt was the Sun god, who was called by many names like “Re”, “Ra”, “Horus”, and “Amen” etc. After the Sun, the god of the Nile “Osiris” predominated. The Egyptians also worshipped Nut (the god of the sky) and Sin (the moon). After the death of the Pharaoh and feudatories, their bodies were coated with chemicals and put in the high-rise tombs. This special chemical preserved the body. The dead body so preserved was called ‘Mummy’. These tombs are called pyramids.
The contribution of Egyptian civilization to the world:
- Egypt gave the world a year of 365 days and a calendar.
- They invented the sun clock and the water clock.
- They made many discoveries in the field of medicine. They prepared such a chemical coating that the dead body could be preserved for centuries.
- The names of 600 medicines related to various diseases are mentioned in an Egyptian list.
- They promoted the principle of monotheism.
Mesopotamian Civilization
Modern Iraq located north of the Persian Gulf, was called Mesopotamia in ancient times. It is a Greek word. It is made up of two words, ‘meso’ and ‘potam’. ‘Meso’ means middle and ‘Potam means river. Thus, the literal meaning of Mesopotamia is the part between two rivers. These two rivers are the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Sumerian, Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations flourished in Mesopotamia. It is said of these civilizations that Sumer gave birth to the civilization, Babylon took it to its zenith and Assyria took it and progressed. These civilizations are described as follows:
Sources of knowing the civilizations of Mesopotamia:
- Behistun Inscriptions
- Susa Inscriptions
- Rosetta inscriptions
- Religious literature
- Materials found from the excavations of cities like Ur, Eridu, Lagash, Nippur etc.
- Inscriptions inscribed on clay plates, Ziggurat.
- Hammurabi’s Code
1. Civilization of Sumeria : In 4500 BC, the people of the Sumerian race of Persia invaded Mesopotamia and defeated the Akkad, Babylonian, Elam and Musa tribes and occupied it. After that, small city-states were established here. Gradually, civilization developed here. At that time in Sumeria, there were city states like Ur, Nipur, Lagash, Uruk, etc. which were independent from one another. Each city had its own deity. The independent ruler of the city state was called ‘Patesi’. The main functions of Patesi were: collecting land tax; protecting the city from external attacks; adjudicating on public issues; etc. The Sumerians invented a script known as the ‘cuneiform script’.
The tall temples built in the shape of pyramids in the cities of Sumer are called ziggurats. The Babylonian ziggurat was 300 feet long, 300 feet wide and 300 feet high.
2. Babylonian Civilization: The Babylonian civilization developed on the banks of the river Hamerite in the southern part of Mesopotamia. The Amorites, a branch of the Semitic people, established their authority over Sumer in 2200 BC. After nearly a hundred years of continuous struggle and wars, the great king of this race, Hammurabi, captured the whole of Mesopotamia and united the empire into a political unity. They made Babylon the capital and also framed a code of law. They took his empire to the zenith of progress. The major rulers here were: Nisi, Ammi Saduqa, Nebuchadnezzar, Gandash Kessite, Shamshidad, Nabopolassar etc. They ruled until 536 BC.
Semitic: A Semitic-speaking race coming from the Middle East.
3. Assyrian Civilization: The Semitic people established the city of Ashur by occupying the upper bank of the Tigris river. It is after the name of this city that this civilization became famous as the civilization of Assyria. Semitic people ruled here for 700 years. The first powerful king here was Tiglath Pileser I. Other prominent rulers were: Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, etc. Ashurbanipal was the last majestic and famous ruler of Assyria. His empire extended to Babylon, Media, Phoenicia, Sumeria and Alum. During the time of Ashurbanipal, extraordinary progress was made in the fields of trade, education and art etc. He built grand palaces and temples in his capital Nineveh. After his death, the empire of Assyria declined and in 612 BC, the Chaldees took possession of it. The king was the supreme leader of the army in Assyria. After him, an officer named Limmu or Tartan was the Chief of Army staff.
The emperors of Assyria were lovers of architecture. They had built grand palaces, temples and libraries in Nineveh and Asur. Every king of Assyria abandoned the old palace and got a new one built for himself. The Assyrian emperors ruled for 150 years on the strength of an autocratic policy.
Administration: The political and administrative systems of Mesopotamian civilizations have been generally similar. The rulers were autocratic and had complete control of the empire, but there was a democratic system in the early stages, which later became a monarchy. They ruled on the basis of divine principles. The ruler was the supreme commander, judge and highest official. The ruler was known by different names in different civilizations. They divided their empire into many provinces in order to govern them better. The governor of the province was chosen by him. The governor used to collect taxes from his province, maintain peace, and support the ruler in war.
Social Life: The society of that time was divided into three classes-upper class, middle class, and the lower class. Kings, officials, and priests form the upper class. The feudal lords and merchants were among the middle class. The lower classes included slaves and farmers. The ideals of morality were very high in society. The position of women in society was average. Morality was important to them.
Religious Life: The people of Mesopotamia were polytheistic. Each city had its own deities. They also worshipped the fields, rivers and mountains. Their main deities were Anu (god of the sky), Ki (earth), Sin (moon), Tammuz (god of vegetation and agriculture), Ishtar (goddess of love), Nergal (god of plague) etc. To please these deities, sacrifices were made. Temples of various gods and goddesses were built.
Economic Life: Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Wheat, barley, olives, cotton and grapes were cultivated. Industry and trade were also advanced at that time. Unions were formed in industry and trade. The exchange was made with pieces of gold, silver divided into the follow and copper. Camels and goats were special among the animals. Various types of goods were made with beautiful carvings on wood. Apart from this, carvings were also done on gold, silver and precious stones.
Greek Civilization
Greece is a peninsula located in the southeast of Europe. It is surrounded by the sea on three sides. It has 502 islands, of which Crete, Troy, Cyprus, Athens, Macedon and Sparta are the main ones. In about 4000 BC, there was the rise and development of a civilization which is called the civilization of Crete on this island. This civilization flourished until 1500 BC. Naunsus and Fiestus Troy were the strong holds of this civilization. After the decline of the Crete civilization, the Mycenaean civilization emerged in the city of Mycin, which dates back to 1200 BC. It flourished till 1200 BC. Aryan tribes took over Greece in 1200 BC and developed civilizations in various city states that flourished. These small town states were based on the democratic system. These city-states were also called ‘polis’. Each city had its own separate army and government. These city-states used to fight among themselves. The political history of this civilization can be divided into the following three parts:
- Dark Age or Age of Homer (1200 BC to 800 BC)
- Iron Age or Age of City States (800 BC to 500 BC)
- Hellenistic Age (500 BC to 200 BC)
Sources of knowing Greek civilization:
- The epics the ‘Iliad’ and the ‘Odyssey’ by Homer
- The ‘Historica’ of Herodotus.
- Material found from the excavations of cities like Athens, Corinth, Sparta, Thebes etc.
- ‘The Peloponnesian War’ by Thucydides
- The Works of Plato and Aristotle
1. Administrative and Political System: The rulers of different dynasties ruled here. The kings were autocratic. Sometimes they were also democratic. The people considered the king equal to God. The king administered the government in consultation with a council. The council consisted of respected persons of the upper class. The name of this council was ‘Boule’. The general meeting of the public was called ‘Agora’. All free citizens participated in this general meeting. Alexander’s time is famous in world history as the ‘Hellenistic era. In 336 BC, Alexander killed his father Philip and became the ruler of Macedonia. He crushed the revolts in Greece and took control. There were about 150 city-states in Greece at that time. There were three types of citizens in each state- 1. free citizens; 2. foreign citizens; and 3. slaves. Free citizens had fundamental rights. The members of the public assembly were elected by the citizens of Greece.
2. Social System: The society was divided into four classes. First was aristocracy. They were the owners of vast land and property and had a large number of slaves. This class fought in the war. The second was the middle class, consisting of ordinary citizens, called freemen. This class played an important role in trade and commerce. The third social class was the independent workers, called ‘Thete’. The fourth social class is was the slaves, who were called ‘helots’. Religious beliefs and social practises were prevalent in this society.
3. Economy and Trade: Greece was economically prosperous. The trade of Greece was spread far and wide. These people made clay and metal utensils; weapons; furniture; oil from olives and wine from grapes; etc. Gold, silver and iron were found in the mountains of Greece. Agriculture was not given attention here.
4. Religious and Cultural Life: The people of Greece were polytheistic and followed paganism. These people also worshipped natural powers and animals. They also believed in ghosts. Their main deities were Zeus (god of the sky), Apollo (sun), Hermes (god of trade), Poseidon (god of the sea), Mars (god of war), Demeter (goddess of food) etc. The people here believed in various forms of entertainment : dancing, singing, animal fights, etc. Greek culture has certainly given an invaluable gift to the world. The Greeks Herodotus, the first historian of Europe, was patronized the court of the famous Greek ruler Pericles.
Roman Civilization
In 1000 BC, Rome was a small village situated on seven hills on the banks of the Tiber river in central Italy. Hence, it was also called ‘City of Seven Hills’. In 8th century BC, it became a city state and later it became a vast empire. The Etruscan race made a significant contribution to the development and spread of Roman civilization. These people built huge buildings and established many cities here. The Italians also gained knowledge of the alphabet, art, warfare weapons, etc. from this vapedin 500 BC, the Latin Aryans defeated the Etruscan race and took control of Rome. After this, Rome continued to progress: Romulus became the first emperor of Rome. The political history of Roman civilization is divided into the following four parts:
- Monarchy period (753 BC-509 BC)
- Republican period (509 BC-133 BC)
- The period of military leaders (133 BC-27 BC)
- Imperial period (27 BC-476 AD)
During the monarchy period, the king was the head of the state. His rights were unlimited. Monarchical society was divided into two classes-the Patrician class and Plebian class. The Patrician class consisted of Latins, who were the only real inhabitants of Rome. This class consisted of the people of Rome’s high and aristocratic families. The second class was the Plebians, consisting of freed slaves, landless and poor people who did not enjoy political rights. Many roads, canals and bridges were built in Rome during this era. For the protection of Rome, a wall was built around it. Beautiful buildings and temples were built in Rome.
Age of Augustus (31 BC-14 BC) is called Rome’s ‘Golden Age’. His era was an era of peace and prosperity. Rome made unprecedented progress under him in various fields. The political, economic, social and cultural system of Roman civilization at that time can be described as follows:
Sources of knowing Rome’s civilization:
- Inscriptions on 12 plaques-Twelve Tables.
- Writings on wooden boards by the priests of Rome-Annals Pontificum.
- The Works of Livy; The Writings of Polybius and Diodorus
1. Administrative system: The republican system of government in Rome was centred in the hands of the Senate elected by the people. The number of members of the Senate was 300, but all of these members belonged to the patrician class. Two judges were appointed by the Senate, who were called ‘consuls’. Their tenure was one year. He was the chief justice, chief general and administrator. The consul was assisted by a finance officer called Questers. Apart from this, there were three more officers to assist in the administration – Censors, tax collecting officer, Aedil, peacekeeper and Praetor, judge, their appointments were made for one year. Governors were appointed to conduct the administration of the provinces. Their tenure was of one year. Due to the non-payment of salaries to the governors, they used to collect arbitrary taxes from the public. The Assembly could not reject a law passed by the Senate.
Do you know? Rome first as a city-state, in the Latin region of central Italy. A kingdom was formed, after which the whole of Italy was merged into it and finally it took the form of a huge empire.
2. Economic system: The main occupations of the Roman people were agriculture and animal husbandry. Wheat, barley, millet, grapes, olives, apples were the main crops in the Latin region of central Italy. The land was owned by wealthy people. The development of trade, commerce and industry in Rome was not much developed, yet the work of making utensils, textile industry, gold and silver jewellery, etc. was done here. The states also had income from mines and the production of salt. These people used to import muslin from India, metal from Africa, silk from China and iron from Greece.
3. Social and cultural system: The basic foundation of the social life of Rome was the family. Families were united. The members of the family had to obey the orders of the head. The people of Rome believed more in the worship of spirits than in the gods of nature. Their gods were as follows: Jupiter (god of peace), Mars (god of war) and Venus (goddess of love), Vesta (god of fire), Apollo (god of music and art), etc. Religious ideas were the essence of Roman governance. In the republican period, the real power of the state was in the hands of the people. But the Plebians and the slave class did not have any kind of political rights. The Plebian classes struggled for this.
Do you know? The Roman Empire had a network of roads. These roads used to connect all the major countries/cities of the world with Rome. Hence, the saying that “all roads lead to Rome” seems; appropriate.
Chinese Civilization
The Chinese civilization is also an ancient civilization. The development of this civilization dates back to around three thousand BC. The rise of this civilization was around the rivers Si Kiang, Hwang Ho and Wang Ho. Due to the floods in these rivers, the Chinese people considered them a disaster, but these rivers played an important role in the development of Chinese civilization. According to Chinese historians, Fu-Si was the first emperor of China, who ruled from 2852 BC to 2738 BC. He laid the foundation of Chinese civilization by teaching the Chinese people to build houses, hunt and raise animals, etc. The second major emperor of China was Shen-mung. He taught agriculture to the Chinese.
The third emperor was Huang Ti (the Yellow Emperor). He assumed the title of emperor and united China, which was divided into small territories and took his empire to the peak of progress. After this, different dynasties ruled here respectively: Hsia Dynasty, Shang Dynasty, To a Chow Dynasty, Chin Dynasty, Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Shung Dynasty.
Sources of knowing Chinese civilization
- Mythology
- Bhuching and Bhiching (poetry collection) by Confucius
- Palaeolithic Remains
- Bone records
- Pottery, images related to sounds
1. Administration:
King – In China, the king was called ‘Wang’. He was the supreme judge and priest. He was also a dictator. People considered him as their father and worshipped him as a son of God.
Council of Ministers – Wang had constituted the Council of Ministers for administrative work. He had four ministers working under him who advised the king in administrative work. Apart from this, there was also an executive council of six members, such as Public Service Committee, Goods and Finance Committee, Ritual and Festival Committee, War and Defence Committee, Punishment and Justice Committee and Public Welfare Committee. In China, generally only qualified persons were appointed to government posts.
Provincial Administration: Two or three ‘hin’ (groups of villages) formed a ‘fu’, which was similar to a province. The provinces were also called ‘Sang’. There were small villages and towns whose administration was run by a judge and a governor. They were appointed by the emperor.
2. Economic Condition: Agriculture and animal husbandry – The main occupation of the Chinese people were agriculture and animal husbandry. Millets, rice, wheat and fruits were cultivated here. Nine families collectively cultivated the fertile land. This system was called the Xingtiyen system.
Industry: There was an amazing development of industries in China. The main occupation of the Chinese was the silk industry. Another main occupation of the Chinese was fishing. People in China used to do hereditary occupation and considered it a sin to change it.
Trade and Commerce: China also made a lot of development in the field of trade. Emperor Xi Huang Ti laid a network of roads in China for the development of trade. There were associations of merchants who used to get wool, tobacco, glass, precious stones from abroad and sent Chinese pottery, gunpowder and cards abroad.
In ancient times, the people of China did not consider any other race civilized except themselves. They called themselves “the kingdom under heaven (Tianxia)”.
3. Social Order: Etiquette and polite behavior were given a lot of importance in Chinese society. According to the Chinese, the creator of the world ‘Panku’ created four classes of society. The first class was of Mandarins that included scholars, teachers, persons with higher education. The second class was the farmers, the third class was the artisans and the fourth class was the traders. The joint family system was prevalent in China.
4. Religious System: The scholars of China were monotheistic and the people were polytheistic. They worshipped nature. For example, the god of the sky (Yang), the god of wind and earth (Chin) were the main ones. The Chinese were also superstitious. They believed in ghosts, bad omen and witchcraft. Confucius and Lao Tzu were the main philosophical schools in China. In 6th century BC Buddhism also spread here from India.
Maya Civilization
Maya civilization flourished in the south of the continent of North America from 500 BC to 1000 BC. This civilization is about 4000 BC old. This civilization was spread in modern Guatemala, Belize, southeast Mexico and the western regions of Honduras and El Salvador. The Maya civilization itself was not an empire or a unified political entity, but a cultural unit of large towns and villages scattered here and there. Although most of these towns or villages were connected to one another. The major ruling dynasties were the Tikal, Calakmul, Copan and Palenke. Their main characteristics are their grand architecture, fine arts, writing arts, astronomy and calendar etc., which make them stand in the line of at to advanced and developed civilizations of the world. The walls of the houses were made of wood and their roofs were made of palm leaves.
Sources of knowing the history of Maya civilization
- Relics, pottery, carvings, artistic objects and glyphs found from the excavations of cities located in the Maya civilization.
- ‘Ancient Maya: New Perspectives’ by Heather.
- Maya books or Codices.
1. Political System: In the Maya civilization, the heads of states were known as ‘real men’ or ‘Halach Uinik’. His position was hereditary. Halack was considered a cosmic and supernatural representative of the Uinik State. There were chieftains of other cities under him called ‘Batabob’. Batabob was in charge of overseeing the administration of his city. Apart from this, there was also a city council consisting of chieftains of various sub-divisions of the city. Although they were under Batabob, they could put check on any of Batabob’s actions. Sapit Batabob also used to lead the army whenever needed.
2. Cultural and Religious System: Calendar of Maya civilization began in 3114 BC, In this calendar, the end of a period of 394 years is called Baktun. The images of the deities were made with sculpted masks and they were worshipped in temples built on platforms. The ruling class considered the gods as their ancestors. Before doing any work, sacrifices were made to please the gods. Cities and states had their own gods.
The Maya civilization itself was not an empire or a political entity, but a cultural unit of small villages, towns and cities.
3. Economic System : People of Maya civilization paid special attention to agriculture and animal husbandry. Crops like wheat, barley, gram, sugarcane, coconut etc. were grown. Along with these, they reared cows and goats. Making boats, cotton clothes and copper bells, swords and ornaments were the main works of people of Maya civilization. They used to build houses for their Batabob and Halach Uinik and other wealthy people using beautifully carved wood. The houses of farmers and ordinary people were made of mud which were called ‘Na’. Maya people constructed wide roads which were called ‘Sacbe’ or ‘Sacbeob’.