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HBSE Class 10 History Chapter 1 Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization notes for Haryana Board of Bharat and the World Book Solution.
Sarasvati Sindhu Civilization Class 10 History Chapter 1 Notes
The first urban civilization of India developed in the fertile plains of the Sarasvati-Sindhu rivers This civilization is called the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization as a large number of sites of this civilization are located on the banks of the Sarasvati and Sindhu rivers. This civilization is also known as ‘Indus Civilization’ and ‘Harappan Civilization’. Chronologically, this civilization is considered to be contemporary of Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations.
Dayaram Sahni excavated Harappa in Punjab in 1921 AD and in 1922 AD Rakhal Das Banerjee excavated Mohenjodaro in Sindh province. As a result of which, importance of this unknown Indian urban civilization attracted the people especially the archaeologists.
Expansion
The expansion of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization was from Alamgirpur (Western Uttar Pradesh) in the east to Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) in the west, Manda (Jammu) in the north; and Daimabad (Maharashtra) in the south. The area of this civilization is 2,15,000 square kilometres. The distance between its sites is about 1600 km from east to west and about 1400 km from north to south. Its sites are located in Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, western Uttar Pradesh, northern Rajasthan, Gujarat, India and Balochistan and Sindh prov inces in Pakistan. Rakhigarhi, Banawali (Haryana), Mohenjodaro (Sindh), Harappa (Punjab), Dholavira (Gujarat) and Kalibanga (Rajasthan) were the major towns of this civilization.
Chronology
Chronologically, the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization is divided into three periods. Radiocarbon dates suggests that the Sarasvati river valley was inhabited by the first agrarian cultures before 7500-7000 BC. In 3200 BC, with the development of town-planning, writing, seals and the method of measurement, these first agrarian cultures were transformed into a developed rural culture, which developed the characteristics of Phase-1 urban life by 2600 BC. As a result, the towns of India’s first urban civilization emerged. By 1900 BC, this urban civilization started changing into a rural culture. This urban civilization collapsed before 1300 BC.
Phase 1 – Early Period ( >4000-2600 BC )
Phase 2 – Urban Period ( 2600-1900 BC )
Phase 3 – Later Period ( 1900-1300 BC )
Town planning
Despite the similarity in the town planning of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization, a few regional differences exists. In the towns of civilization, two mounds are often found in the east and west directions. The residential area was situated on the east mound and the fort was situated on the west mound. These towns were equipped with strong ramparts. The turrets were built on the defence ramparts. Common men, merchants, craftsmen, artisans and workers lived in the town.. Administrative, public buildings and granaries were located inside the fort.
Roads had an important place in the town planning of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The main roads divided the town into five or six blocks. The main roads in Mohenjodaro were 9.15 metres wide and the streets were 3.0 metres wide on average. The roads of Kalibanga, Rakhigarhi and Mitathal were also wide. The roads were unpaved. Special attention was paid to cleanliness. For garbage, dustbins were kept on the side of the roads.
The drains of the houses led to the big drain on the side of the road, then the water was drained out of the town through these drains. The drains were mainly made of paved bricks. Their width and depth were determined as per requirements. Often the drains were covered with bricks of large size. The drains were probably cleaned from time to time.
Residential and community buildings are also found in the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Residential buildings had three or four rooms, a kitchen, a bathroom and a courtyard in the middle of the building. The houses of the rich people also had wells and toilets. Evidence of stairs in buildings is also found. Evidence of plastering on windows, ventilators, floors and walls in houses has been found. Granaries, baths and meeting halls are found in community buildings. Bricks in the ratio of 1:2:3 and 1:2:4 were used in these buildings.
Art of Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization
Stone, metal and clay sculptures are mentioned in the art of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Apart from these, seals, beads and pottery indicate its aesthetics. The most notable of the stone idols found at Mohenjodaro is the 19 cm long fragmented idol of a man wearing a shawl with shamrock ornamentation. An idol of a world-famous metal dancer has been found from Mohenjodaro. Clay idols of men, women, animals, and birds have also been found. Clay idols of humans are found along with ornaments and headdresses. Animals and birds include bulls, sheep, goats, dogs, elephants, pigs, peacocks, ducks, parrots and pigeons.
Seals have an important place in the art of Sarasvati Sindhu civilization. Seals are mainly square or rectangular on which animals, birds, deities and scripts have been inscribed with micro instruments. Jewellery (beads, bangles, necklaces, bracelets, rings, etc.) of gold, silver and copper etc. are found. Apart from these, sports equipment, pottery and other household items were also made.
Political life
The area of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization was very wide. The uniformity of town planning, pot tradition, tool making, weights, measures, seals, scripts etc. indicates the existence of an efficient administration. But what was the nature of the administration? It would be extremely difficult to say for certain. Mr. Hunter has opined that a republican form of government was prevalent in Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The public buildings and town forts would probably have been used for the members of the council. Wheeler writes that, “Whatever the source of power may have been, it was probably religion that had prominence”. In the Mesopotamian civilization, the administration of the town-states was in the hands of the priestly rulers and the entire land was the property of the temples. Scholars believe that the administration of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization was conducted from two capitals named Harappa and Mohenjodaro. But seeing the size of Rakhigarhi and Dholavira, their importance also cannot be denied. These ancient sites may also have been important administrative towns of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization.
Social life
The society of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization must have been divided into many classes. The town was divided into fortification area and housing area. The rich people or ruling class resided in the town-forts. The fortified area of Dholavira was divided into two parts, in which probably the ruling class would have lived in one and important administrative officials in the other. Security and special facilities were taken care of in the fort area. Traders, soldiers, officers, craftsmen and labourers lived in the residential area. People of this class also lived in two separate residential areas in Dholavira. The residential areas at Harappa and Mohenjodaro were not even surrounded by ramparts, but evidence of fortifications has been found at Kalibanga, Lothal, Banawali and Dholavira. In the society of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization, other important classes were farmers, potters, carpenters, sailors, laborers, jewellers, and weavers. The people of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization were both vegetarian and non-vegetarian. Their main food was barley, wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat (fish, sheep, goats, pigs etc.). Evidence of cooking and grinding food in an oven and a stone grinder is also found in the excavation. Plates, glasses, bowls and pots etc. were used for food.
The inhabitants of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization were particularly fond of clothing and jewellery. The stone idol found at Mohenjodaro is wearing an ornate shawl, whose left shoulder is covered and the right one is open. The beard is specially groomed and the hair is tied at the back with lace. An armlet is tied on the right hand. Another idol found from there is wearing a transparent garment on the waist. Necklaces, armlets, bracelets, rings, etc. were mainly worn as ornaments. Both men and women wore jewellery, indicating the artistic interest of the makers. The rich used to wear ornaments made of gold and silver, semi-precious stones, ivory, etc., while the poor wore ornaments made of clay, bone and stone.
The people of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization had a special interest in hairstyles. They mainly used ivory combs and copper mirrors. Women also used to apply kajal, surma and vermilion. The game of chess and dance were their main means of entertainment. The people of Sarasvati Sindhu civilization were also fond of hunting. There were toys, clacks, whistles and carts, etc., to entertain the children.
Economic Life
Agriculture had a very important place in the economic life of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The region of Sarasvati-Sindhu was very fertile. Mainly wheat, barley, rice, moong, lentils, peas, mustard, cotton, sesame etc. were cultivated here. Specific types of crops, methods of planting. agricultural equipment, irrigation systems, etc. show the comprehensive development of agriculture. The stone sickle obtained from Mehrgarh, the plowing field found from Kalibanga and the sample of the plough obtained from Banawali also show the high development of agriculture. Large collection centres also reveal large quantities of crop production. Bulls, cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats, donkeys and pigs were mainly reared in the Sarasvati Sindhu civilization. They were used for milk, meat, hides and wool etc. Bullocks were used for agricultural work as well as for transport. The people of this civilization also domesticated horses and camels. The rearing of elephants also probably started. Apart from these, the evidence of wild animals like wild boar, chinkara, deer and large Indian antelope, etc., along with the various types of waterfowl and birds has also been found.
Evidence of high-level industrial activities is also found in the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The people of Sindhu were well versed in the techniques of metal casting for various types of jewellery, tools and implements, and were highly skilful and proficient in their manufacture. Various types of ornaments were made from precious stones, conch shells, oysters and ivory. Evidence of carnelian from Rakhigarhi and Bhirdana, faience from Tigrana and steatite workshop from Manheru has been found. Pottery, brick industry, engraved crafts and textile industry were also highly developed and prevalent. Perhaps a group of merchants was also formed during this period.
Import-export, system of measurement and weighing, currencies, nature and means of transport throw light on business activities. At that time, metals and semi-precious stones were imported and local goods were exported. Domestic and foreign trade took place both by land and by sea. Trade through the land route was done by bullock carts. Evidence of the sea route is found from the boat inscribed on the seal obtained from Mohenjodaro and the clay toy boat found from Lothal. Mesopotamian records show that they had trade relations with Meluha (Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization). Evidence of port has also been found from Lothal. A large amount of weights and scales have been found in the excavation. The unit of weight was in the ratio of 16. Oyster scales from Mohenjodaro and ivory scale from Lothal have also been found.
Religious life
The most distinctive aspect of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization was its religion, whose many elements continued in the later Indian society. The people used to worship the Mother Goddess, the evidence of which is found in the terracotta figurines. The seals also have female figurines on them. Some of the terracotta figurines of the Mother Goddess have traces of smut. There is a possibility that some objects may have been burnt for worship in front of these figurines. In this civilization, the worship of the Mother Goddess was prevalent in the form of the worship of the goddesses of the animal and plant world.
Pashupati Shiva is found in the antiques of Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. A seal obtained from Mohenjodaro depicts a three headed man with horns seated in a yoga posture on a throne. The elephant and tiger are shown on the right side, thel rhinoceros and the buffalo are shown on the left. Two deer are shown standing under the throne. This figurine is of Pashupati Shiva. Shivlinga was also worshipped during this civilization. There is also evidence of animal worship and tree worship in the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Mainly, one horned animal, bull, snake, peepal tree etc. were worshipped. Yoga has also been important among the people here. One seal found at Mohenjodaro depicts a man in Padmasana posture and another seal shows the half-open eyes of a yogi focused on the tip of the nostrils. In this way, the practical aspect of yoga is found on the seals. The Swastik symbol is also found on a few seals of this civilization. Three methods of funeral rites were prevalent in the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization:
- Complete burial
- Partial burial
- Cremation
The mausoleum areas were outside the towns, the evidence of which has been found from Farmana, Rakhigarhi and other archaeological sites. The heads of the dead bodies were usually placed towards the north and the feet towards the south. Pottery, jewellery, tools, etc. were kept with the skeletons.
Causes of Decline
A number of reasons must have been responsible for the decline of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. The details of these causes are as follows:
1. Administrative stagnation: In the last phase of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization, there was stagnation in administration. As a result, the size of the settlement was shrinked and cleanliness decreased. There was encroachment on the streets and alleys. The walls started becoming less wide and bricks of old houses were used in the construction of new houses, due to which this urban civilization gradually transformed into rural culture.
2. Climate change: Climate change can also be considered responsible for the decline of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization. Due to less rainfall and drying up of the river Sarasvati, the settlements of this civilization must have been destroyed in Haryana, Rajasthan and Punjab.
3. Flood: Evidence of floods has been found from the excavations of Mohenjodaro, Chanhudaro, Lothal and Bhagatrao. It is speculated that floods must have played a role in the decline of this civilization.
4. Decrease in foreign trade: Due to the decrease in foreign trade of the Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization, the economic structure began to weaken, due to which the demand for local production began to increase in place of valuable goods and the standard of living of the people declined drastically which became the main reason for the decline of this civilization.
5. Epidemic: A study of 42 human skeletons found from Mohenjodaro has shown that 41 people have died due to epidemics like malaria. So, it is speculated that the decline of this civilization may have also happened due to the epidemic.